Should You Get a Massage Before or After a Workout? How to Time Bodywork for Performance and Recovery

Table of Contents

1. Key Highlights
2. Introduction
3. How massage influences the body: mechanisms that matter for pre- and post-workout use
4. Pre-workout massage: protocols, benefits, and what to avoid
5. Post-workout massage: timing, intensity, and recovery strategies
6. The hybrid approach: how to combine pre- and post-workout massage effectively
7. Self-massage, tools, and practical protocols you can use between therapy sessions
8. Tailoring massage timing to different sports and goals
9. Evidence summary: what research tells us about massage timing and outcomes
10. Practical assessment: a decision flow to choose pre- or post-workout massage
11. Common misconceptions and pitfalls
12. Contraindications, red flags, and when to consult a professional
13. Case studies and applied examples
14. How to communicate with your massage therapist: information that matters
15. Long-term integration: periodizing massage with training cycles
16. Monitoring outcomes: metrics and subjective markers to track effectiveness
17. Frequently asked questions (FAQ)

Key Highlights

• Pre-workout massage is best when brief and light: it primes circulation, neuromuscular activation, and mobility without inducing fatigue.
• Post-workout massage supports recovery, reduces soreness, and restores range of motion; intensity should match tolerance and tissue condition.
• The most effective approach is individualized: match timing, technique, and duration to your goals—performance, recovery, pain relief—or use a hybrid model combining short pre-workout activation with targeted post-workout restoration.

Introduction

Athletic preparation and recovery are as strategic as the training itself. Athletes and fitness enthusiasts often debate a seemingly simple question: Should bodywork come before exercise to stimulate performance, or after to accelerate recovery? The answer depends on purpose, technique, and timing. A brisk, superficial massage can wake muscles and sharpen coordination before a session. A deeper, restorative treatment after exertion can speed tissue repair, ease soreness, and restore movement quality. Choosing the right combination requires understanding what different massage modalities do to the body, when those physiological changes help or hinder performance, and how individual factors—sport, training load, tolerance, and underlying issues—alter the calculus.

This article breaks down the science and practice of massage timing, offers concrete protocols for different athletes and situations, and lays out a decision framework you can use to integrate bodywork into your training plan. Expect practical examples, protocols you can try today, and guidance on self-massage tools and red flags that warrant medical attention.

How massage influences the body: mechanisms that matter for pre- and post-workout use

Massage affects tissue and nervous system function through several mechanisms that determine whether it benefits pre-exercise performance or post-exercise recovery.

• Circulation and tissue perfusion: Rhythmic, superficial strokes produce local vasodilation and increase blood flow to targeted areas. Greater perfusion supplies oxygen and nutrients while accelerating metabolite clearance when combined with movement.
• Neuromuscular modulation: Light stimulation of skin and superficial muscle layers increases proprioceptive input. That input can enhance muscle activation patterns, coordination, and readiness. Heavier friction can temporarily reduce muscle tone by interrupting hyperactive motor units.
• Fascial and connective tissue modulation: Techniques that address myofascial restrictions can improve glide between muscle layers and increase joint range of motion. Some effects are immediate; others require repeated sessions as adhesions remodel.
• Lymphatic and metabolic clearance: Gentle, directionally oriented strokes assist lymph movement and help clear metabolic byproducts after exercise.
• Pain gating and endogenous analgesia: Pressure and soft-tissue manipulation activate pain-modulatory pathways and trigger endorphin release, reducing perceived soreness and improving relaxation.
• Psychological effects: The calming or invigorating nature of a massage alters arousal and stress hormones, impacting focus before exercise and sleep/recovery afterward.

These mechanisms paint a picture where timing and intensity matter. Increased blood flow and neuromuscular activation often benefit pre-exercise preparation. Deep pressure and extensive tissue remodeling play a larger role in post-exercise recovery. The challenge is matching technique to objective without producing unwanted fatigue or exacerbating inflammation.

Pre-workout massage: protocols, benefits, and what to avoid

When the goal is to optimize immediate performance, interventions must increase readiness without blunting force production or creating soreness. A pre-workout massage should be short, specific, and complementary to an active warm-up.

Core goals for pre-workout massage

• Raise local skin and muscle temperature.
• Increase regional blood flow and oxygenation.
• Improve joint range of motion where restrictions would impede technique.
• Boost proprioception and neuromuscular recruitment.
• Reduce pre-competition anxiety and sharpen focus.

Recommended pre-workout techniques and timing

• Duration: 5–15 minutes total. Focus on the primary movers for the session (for example, calves and quads for runners; shoulders, pecs, and lats for overhead athletes).
• Intensity: Gentle to moderate. Rate the pressure 1–3 out of 10 in terms of perceived discomfort; no deep pain.
• Techniques: Superficial effleurage to warm tissue, light petrissage to increase soft-tissue mobility, brief myofascial release for minor restrictions, gentle cross-fiber friction if needed, percussive work for stimulation.
• When to schedule: 5–30 minutes before activity, followed immediately by dynamic movement drills that mimic the sport. Combine bodywork with active mobility: massage primes, movement completes the warm-up.
• Pairing: Use massage to complement dynamic warm-up protocols (leg swings, activation bands, sprint drills). Massage alone is not an adequate warm-up.

Examples by athlete type

• Runner preparing for a hard interval session: 8-minute sequence—2 minutes light effleurage on calves, 2 minutes on quads, 2 minutes on glutes, 2 minutes of gentle percussion on calves; then dynamic leg swings and a 10-minute progressive warm-up jog.
• Olympic weightlifter before snatch work: 6–10 minutes focused on thoracic mobility, lats, and hip flexors with light myofascial work and neural activation drills; follow with barbell warm-up sets.
• Team-sport athlete pre-game: 6–12 minute quick massage targeting hamstrings, quads, and calves for activation; keep strokes brisk to promote wakefulness and pair with sport-specific movement.

What to avoid before training

• Deep tissue or prolonged heavy pressure: Intense work can cause transient tissue soreness, reduce maximal strength, or impair explosive capacity for minutes to hours.
• Treating acute inflammation: If a region is hot, swollen, or painful from a recent injury, avoid aggressive pre-exercise work.
• Replacing dynamic warm-up with passive massage: Massage primes tissue but does not return the cardiovascular and neuromuscular activation benefits of movement.

Real-world snapshot: an elite sprinter’s routine A collegiate sprinter reported improved start consistency after replacing a 20-minute pre-meet deep tissue session with a concise 8-minute activation massage plus dynamic drills. The lighter protocol increased glute and calf activation without inducing soreness, producing better force application during the first 10 meters.

Post-workout massage: timing, intensity, and recovery strategies

After training, the goal shifts to repair, metabolite clearance, reduction in soreness, and restoration of mobility. Post-workout bodywork can accelerate the shift from catabolic to anabolic processes and improve readiness for subsequent sessions.

Core goals for post-workout massage

• Promote clearance of metabolic waste and reduce congestion.
• Reduce muscle soreness and alleviate trigger points.
• Facilitate tissue realignment and restore range of motion.
• Encourage parasympathetic activation for better rest and sleep.

Recommended post-workout techniques and timing

• Timing options:
  • Immediate brief session: 10–20 minutes within 30–90 minutes post-exercise. Useful after moderate to heavy sessions to kick-start recovery.
  • Delayed focused session: 24–48 hours post-exercise, targeting DOMS and adhesions once acute inflammation has subsided.
• Duration: 10–60 minutes depending on need. Athletes with high training loads may benefit from longer sessions (30–60 minutes) on a weekly basis.
• Intensity: Moderate to firm. Aim for therapeutic pressure but avoid unbearable pain. Pressure can be 4–7 out of 10 on discomfort scale and adjusted to the athlete’s tolerance and acute tissue condition.
• Techniques: Deep tissue for chronic tightness or adhesions, trigger point therapy for focal knots, cross-fiber friction for scar tissue, lymphatic drainage techniques if swelling is present, and sustained myofascial release for restricted fascial lines.
• Follow-up: Encourage light activity within 24 hours (e.g., easy bike or walk) to maintain circulation and support recovery.

Examples by athlete type

• Endurance athlete after a long run: 20–40 minutes focusing on calves, hamstrings, glutes, and lower back. Use a combination of effleurage for lymphatic flow and deeper work on tight points. Schedule a second, focused session 48 hours later if DOMS is pronounced.
• Strength athlete after heavy squat day: 15–30 minutes targeting quadriceps, adductors, and lower back with deep work on trigger points and mobility-focused myofascial release.
• Team-sport athlete post-match: Quick 15-minute post-match session to flush legs and address acute soreness, followed by a more thorough recovery massage 24–48 hours later.

Cautions for post-workout work

• Acute injuries and uncontrolled swelling: Defer intense massage on an acutely inflamed joint or muscle until evaluated.
• Excessive pressure too soon: Extremely deep work immediately after maximal exercise can aggravate microtrauma. Moderate pressure combined with active recovery is usually preferable the first few hours.
• Hydration and symptomatic response: Ensure adequate hydration. If severe pain increases after massage or systemic symptoms appear, stop and seek professional advice.

Real-world snapshot: professional soccer team protocol A professional soccer squad uses a two-tier approach: a 10–15 minute “legs flush” immediately post-match to aid metabolite clearance, and a 30–45 minute restorative session the following day for players who logged heavy minutes or reported soreness. Injury-prone players receive individualized deep work under physiotherapist supervision.

The hybrid approach: how to combine pre- and post-workout massage effectively

Most athletes benefit from a hybrid model: short, stimulating work pre-session to activate; more restorative and specific work post-session to repair. That combination leverages the distinct mechanisms of massage without introducing the risks of misplaced intensity.

Practical hybrid routines

• Short sessions before hard training and focused sessions afterward: 5–10 minutes of activation (light strokes and percussion) before, 15–30 minutes of targeted therapy after.
• Micro-dosing bodywork throughout a training week: brief 5–10 minute self-massage or therapist sessions on high-load days, and 30–60 minute restorative sessions once per week for deeper remodeling.
• Rotate priorities by training cycle: During heavy training blocks schedule more frequent restorative work; taper weeks shift toward more activation and relaxation sessions to optimize performance.

Sample weekly plan for a competitive lifter

• 3 high-intensity sessions/week: 8-minute pre-workout activation + 15-minute post-session therapist-assisted flush on session days.
• 1 mobility and technique day: 20–30 minute therapeutic session focusing on thoracic and hip mobility.
• 1 rest/recovery day: 45–60 minute deep restorative session including trigger point work, myofascial release, and relaxation-focused massage.

Decision rules for hybrid use

• If the upcoming session demands maximal force or power, keep pre-workout massage light and brief.
• If the recent session induced significant mechanical stress or soreness, schedule deeper post-workout work within 24–48 hours.
• Use athlete-reported readiness and objective markers (sleep quality, muscle soreness, performance metrics) to adjust frequency and intensity.

Self-massage, tools, and practical protocols you can use between therapy sessions

Not every athlete has daily access to a massage therapist. Self-massage and tools extend the benefits of professional bodywork when used correctly.

Useful tools and when to use them

• Foam roller: Effective for larger muscle groups (quads, hamstrings, glutes, thoracic spine). Use for 1–2 minutes per site, moderate pressure. Ideal post-workout for flushing and pre-workout as a quick activation.
• Lacrosse ball or massage ball: Targets small, localized trigger points such as hip external rotators, glute medius, or the soleus. Short holds (20–60 seconds) on tender spots work well; combine with gentle movement to assess effect.
• Percussive devices (massage guns): Quick stimulation and temporary reduction in discomfort. Use brief 30–90 second bursts on targeted muscles before training or for muscle loosening after exercise. Avoid sustained heavy pressure on sore areas.
• Massage stick: Useful for calves and quads; good for travel and quick pre-competition activation.

Self-massage routines

• Quick pre-workout activation (6–8 minutes):
  • Foam roll calves: 1 minute each leg.
  • Foam roll quads: 60–90 seconds each leg.
  • Lacrosse ball on glute medius: 30–60 seconds each side.
  • Finish with 2 minutes of light percussion or dynamic mobility.
• Post-workout flush (10–15 minutes):
  • 2–3 minutes foam roll calves.
  • 2–3 minutes foam roll hamstrings and quads.
  • Lacrosse ball on localized knots for up to 2 minutes per point.
  • End with 5 minutes of slow walking and gentle stretching for the treated regions.

Technique tips

• Move slowly and breathe. Rapid, aggressive rolling tends to increase guarding.
• Combine isometric contractions or small movements while on a trigger point to facilitate release.
• Track perceived soreness and functional change: if a self-treatment makes strength or mobility worse, stop and reassess.

Limitations of self-massage

• Self-techniques are rarely as effective at depth as skilled hands, especially for complex fascial layers or deep trigger points.
• Incorrect intensity or duration can produce bruising or increased soreness. Start conservatively and progress.

Tailoring massage timing to different sports and goals

The ideal massage strategy depends on specific athletic demands. Below are sport- and goal-specific recommendations.

Endurance sports (marathon, triathlon)

• Pre-race: Brief activation in the hour before starting—1–2 minutes per major muscle group, focus on calve and hamstring flexibility and proprioception. Keep intensity low.
• Post-event: Early post-race flush aids in metabolite clearance. Follow with a targeted session 24–48 hours later if DOMS is significant.
• Frequency: One deep restorative session per week during heavy training blocks.

Strength and power sports (weightlifting, sprinting)

• Pre-session: Minimal pre-workout massage. Use neural activation and dynamic movement to prime explosive performance. Very brief percussion or light stimulation of prime movers can be used.
• Post-session: Focus on recovery and removal of trigger points. Time deep work to 24–48 hours after maximal sessions to avoid blunting immediate recovery.
• Frequency: 1–2 targeted therapy sessions per week, depending on training volume.

Team sports (soccer, basketball)

• Pre-game: Short, brisk stimulation for legs and shoulders; prioritize activation and arousal over deep release.
• Half-time: Quick 3–6 minute touch-up focusing on preventing cramping and maintaining blood flow.
• Post-game: Immediate flush followed by more in-depth work 24–48 hours later for heavy-minute players.
• Frequency: Daily brief sessions may be used during congested fixtures with weekly restorative sessions.

Rehabilitation and chronic pain management

• Pre-exercise: Avoid significant manipulation on days when tissue is inflamed. Use light activation if movement is necessary.
• Post-rehabilitation session: Therapeutic massage can be part of a broader plan with physiotherapy to remodel scar tissue and restore function. Timing depends on tissue healing stages and clinician guidance.
• Frequency: Clinician-directed, often more frequent during early rehab phases.

Weekend warriors and general fitness enthusiasts

• Pre-workout: 5–10 minutes of light activation for weekend activities, especially if long periods of inactivity preceded the session.
• Post-workout: A 15–30 minute session focused on sore or overused regions will reduce next-day discomfort and maintain mobility.
• Frequency: One therapeutic session weekly or biweekly helps reduce cumulative stiffness.

Evidence summary: what research tells us about massage timing and outcomes

Clinical and sports research has generally supported massage for reducing perceived soreness, improving short-term flexibility, and promoting psychological recovery. Several consistent findings inform timing:

• Massage reduces delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) and perceived pain, particularly when applied within 24–72 hours after intense exercise.
• Short-duration, light massages can improve range of motion and neuromuscular readiness immediately before exercise without impairing performance.
• Intensive, deep tissue massage immediately before maximal-strength or power efforts may temporarily decrease peak force output in some individuals; avoid deep work directly before competition.
• Effects on long-term performance metrics are less pronounced; massage functions best as an adjunct to training to enhance recovery quality and athlete readiness.

These generalizations support a conservative approach to pre-exercise massage intensity and a proactive use of post-exercise massage to manage recovery and soreness. Research emphasizes dosing—duration and pressure—as critical variables for outcome.

Practical assessment: a decision flow to choose pre- or post-workout massage

Use this simple decision flow to decide whether to schedule pre-workout, post-workout, hybrid, or no massage.

1. Define the immediate goal:
   • Improve short-term performance or activation → consider brief pre-workout massage.
   • Speed recovery, reduce soreness, address chronic tightness → prioritize post-workout massage.
   • Both activation and recovery needed → hybrid approach.
2. Assess tissue condition:
   • Acute pain, swelling, or recent injury → defer aggressive massage; consult clinician.
   • No acute inflammation and mild tightness → pre or post depending on goal.
   • Severe DOMS or persistent trigger points → schedule deeper post-session work, preferably 24–48 hours later.
3. Match intensity to timing:
   • Pre-workout: light, stimulating, <15 minutes.
   • Post-workout: moderate-to-deep, 15–60 minutes depending on need and tolerance.
4. Evaluate athlete schedule:
   • Competition day requiring peak performance → limit pre-event massage to brief activation; schedule restorative work after competition.
   • Heavy training week → add restorative session mid-week and activation pre-sessions.
5. Monitor response:
   • Track soreness, range of motion, sleep, and subsequent performance.
   • Adjust frequency and intensity based on outcomes.

Common misconceptions and pitfalls

• Myth: Deep massage before competition always enhances performance. Reality: Deep work can cause transient soreness and reduce maximal force. Light, strategic work is safer pre-event.
• Myth: Massage removes all lactic acid. Reality: Lactic acid clears quickly with circulation and metabolism. Massage helps circulation and comfort but isn’t a miracle drain.
• Myth: More frequent deep massage is always better. Reality: Overly aggressive or too-frequent deep work can impede training adaptation and increase soreness. Periodize massage much like training.
• Myth: Self-massage replaces a therapist’s skills. Reality: Self-tools and routines are useful but often do not reach the depth or specificity a trained therapist provides.

Contraindications, red flags, and when to consult a professional

Do not receive massage if any of the following apply without medical clearance:

• Acute infection, fever, or systemic illness.
• Recent fractures, deep vein thrombosis (DVT) suspicion, or unstable medical conditions.
• Open wounds, severe bruising, or uncontrolled swelling.
• Severe or unexplained neurological symptoms (numbness, progressive weakness).
• Known bleeding disorders or on anticoagulant medication without clearance.

Seek a licensed therapist or healthcare provider when:

• Pain worsens with massage or persistent, sharp pain occurs.
• There is no functional improvement after appropriate trials.
• You suspect an underlying injury requiring imaging or specialized care.

Case studies and applied examples

Case 1: Marathoner chasing a time goal Situation: A 35-year-old marathoner struggles with calf tightness during long runs. Approach: Short pre-run self-massage and dynamic calf activation (1–2 minutes each leg), combined with a thorough 30-minute post-long-run session the same day focused on gastrocnemius, soleus, and hamstring release. Weekly deep sessions address chronic fascial restrictions. Outcome: Improved late-race comfort and fewer cramping episodes after two months.

Case 2: Collegiate basketball player with recurring hip adductor soreness Situation: Player reports tight groin and reduced lateral quickness. Approach: Team physiotherapist provides brief pre-game activation to reduce stiffness and a detailed post-game session addressing trigger points and adductor length. A rehabilitation program adds strength and mobility work for adductors and glutes. Outcome: Pain decreases, and lateral movement improves after integrating targeted massage with exercise therapy.

Case 3: Weekend warrior who experiences severe DOMS Situation: Office worker does a single heavy training session on weekends and suffers two to three days of DOMS. Approach: Introduce a 15-minute post-session self-massage routine and schedule a 45-minute weekly therapeutic session. Emphasize gradual progression of training load and active recovery. Outcome: DOMS severity lessens, and return-to-training times improve.

How to communicate with your massage therapist: information that matters

To get the most from a session, convey the following:

• Your training schedule for the day and the week.
• Current pain or tightness patterns and any recent injuries.
• Your primary goal for the session: activation, recovery, pain relief, or relaxation.
• How you respond to pressure—what feels therapeutic versus unacceptable.
• Any medical history or medications that could affect treatment.

A skilled therapist will tailor pressure, technique, and duration around that information and provide home-care advice.

Long-term integration: periodizing massage with training cycles

Massage should be integrated into a broader training plan, not applied uniformly.

• Base/volume phases: Prioritize restorative work and mobility sessions to support high training volumes.
• Intensity/strength phases: Use brief activation before sessions and targeted post-session recovery. Schedule deeper sessions on low-intensity days.
• Peaking/taper phases: Emphasize light activation and relaxation; avoid deep work that might induce soreness close to competition.
• Off-season: Address chronic restrictions and postural issues with more frequent, deeper sessions and corrective exercise.

Consider massage a recovery modality akin to sleep, nutrition, and active recovery. Its value increases when applied strategically rather than as a daily comfort ritual without connection to training demands.

Monitoring outcomes: metrics and subjective markers to track effectiveness

Use a mix of subjective and objective indicators to evaluate whether your massage timing and technique are working.

Subjective markers

• Perceived muscle soreness (0–10 scale).
• Sleep quality after sessions.
• Readiness to train (energy, motivation, muscle stiffness).
• Pain levels during sport-specific activities.

Objective markers

• Range of motion measurements (e.g., sit-and-reach, hip internal rotation).
• Strength or power outputs in training (e.g., jump height, lifting metrics).
• Training consistency and ability to maintain planned workload.
• Heart-rate variability (HRV) trends if available.

Adjust massage frequency, intensity, and timing based on trends rather than single sessions.

Frequently asked questions (FAQ)

Q: Will a pre-workout massage make me weaker? A: A brief, light pre-workout massage should not reduce strength. Intense, deep-tissue work immediately before heavy lifts or sprints can transiently reduce maximal force and is best avoided.

Q: How soon after a workout should I get a massage? A: A short post-workout massage can be applied within 30–90 minutes to assist with flushing and early recovery. For deeper therapeutic work targeting DOMS or adhesions, 24–48 hours after exercise is often more effective.

Q: How long should a pre-workout massage last? A: Keep it between 5 and 15 minutes, focused on prime movers. The goal is to stimulate and mobilize, not to deeply remodel tissue.

Q: How intense should a post-workout massage be? A: Intensity should be moderate to firm but tolerable. Start conservatively (4–5/10) and progress based on tissue response. Avoid painful, aggressive work on acutely inflamed areas.

Q: Can self-massage replace a professional session? A: Self-massage is a valuable adjunct and often sufficient for maintenance and activation. For deep adhesions, complex restrictions, or chronic issues, professional hands-on therapy remains more effective.

Q: Will massage remove lactic acid from my muscles? A: Lactic acid is metabolized and cleared through normal physiology rapidly; massage assists circulation and perceived soreness but is not the singular cause of lactate clearance.

Q: Is massage safe with an injury? A: Some therapeutic techniques are safe and beneficial for certain injuries, but acute or severe injuries require evaluation by a clinician before massage. A professional can tailor a safe approach.

Q: How frequently should athletes get massages? A: Frequency depends on training load and goals. High-level athletes often use brief daily treatments and weekly deeper sessions. Recreational athletes may find 1 session every 1–3 weeks beneficial.

Q: Are there any risks of too much massage? A: Excessive, overly aggressive massage can increase tissue irritation, bruising, or delay recovery. Balance intensity with the body’s response and allow for adaptation.

Q: Should I avoid massage if I plan to compete the same day? A: Not necessarily. Use short, light activation before competition. Avoid deep or prolonged pressure shortly before competition to prevent soreness or fatigue.

Q: What about using percussive massage guns before exercise? A: Percussive devices can be effective for short, localized activation. Limit sessions to brief bursts (30–90 seconds per muscle) and avoid high-intensity pressure that causes pain.

Q: How do I select a therapist? A: Look for licensed therapists with experience working with athletes. Ask about their familiarity with sports-specific demands, recovery strategies, and their willingness to communicate and tailor sessions to your needs.

Q: Can massage improve sleep and recovery overnight? A: Yes. Massage promotes parasympathetic activity and can reduce stress hormones, which often improves sleep quality and supports recovery.

Q: What should I report to my therapist before a session? A: Share your recent training, current soreness or pain, any injuries, medications, and your goals for the session. This helps the therapist choose appropriate techniques.

Q: Does massage affect long-term training adaptations? A: Massage primarily affects recovery and perceived readiness. When used correctly, it supports consistent training and may indirectly improve adaptations by enabling more effective training loads. Excessive deep work immediately after sessions could theoretically blunt short-term anabolic signaling, so timing and dosage matter.

Q: Can children or adolescents receive sports massage? A: With appropriate consent and from a therapist experienced with youth athletes, light activation and recovery-focused massage can be safe. Techniques and intensity must be adapted to developmental stage.

Q: How should massage be combined with other recovery methods? A: Use massage as one component of a recovery plan that includes sleep, nutrition, hydration, active recovery (light movement), and appropriate periodization. Avoid piling aggressive modalities together in a way that overloads the body.

Integrating massage into a training plan requires the same thoughtful planning applied to workouts: clear objectives, appropriate dosing, and consistent monitoring. Use short, energetic bodywork to prime the system and deeper, restorative sessions to repair and realign tissue. Tailor timing and technique to the athlete, the sport, and the phase of training. When applied strategically, massage is more than a comfort—it becomes a tool that extends training quality, reduces injury risk, and sustains performance over time.