EMOM Workouts Explained: How Every-Minute-On-the-Minute Training Builds Conditioning, Strength, and Work Capacity

Table of Contents

1. Key Highlights
2. Introduction
3. How EMOMs Work: Physiology and Psychology
4. Designing an Effective EMOM: Exercises, Reps, and Time Domains
5. EMOM Variations and Their Uses
6. Programming Examples: EMOMs for Different Goals and Levels
7. Measuring Intensity and Tracking Progress
8. Common Mistakes and How to Avoid Them
9. Scaling and Regressions: Making EMOMs Accessible
10. EMOMs in Real-World Training: Case Studies and Examples
11. Practical Warm-Up and Cool-Down Protocols for EMOM Sessions
12. Recovery, Frequency, and Long-Term Integration
13. Common EMOM Templates Coaches Use
14. Equipment and Space Considerations
15. How to Begin: A 4-Week Starter Plan
16. The Research-Agnostic Rationale: Why EMOMs Produce Results
17. FAQ

Key Highlights

• EMOM (Every Minute On the Minute) is a flexible training framework that alternates short bursts of work with built-in rest, enabling time-efficient conditioning, strength development, and improved work capacity across fitness levels.
• Effective EMOM design balances exercise selection, repetition schemes, and total duration; common variations—ascending/descending reps, odd/even rotations, density challenges, and strength-focused EMOMs—serve distinct goals.
• Proper implementation requires prioritizing technique, graded progression, and monitoring intensity (RPE, rest time, heart rate) to avoid overreaching and sustain gains.

Introduction

EMOM—Every Minute On the Minute—has moved from niche programming into mainstream training rooms, gym classes, and competitive sport preparation. The format’s simplicity disguises a potent toolset: tightly controlled intervals, automatic pacing, and an intuitive structure that maps directly onto measurable progress. Coaches prize EMOMs because they produce consistent stimuli without needing complex equipment or stopwatch algorithms. Participants appreciate that the clock enforces both urgency and recovery, making workouts feel purposeful and achievable.

This article dissects EMOMs from first principles: how they work physiologically and psychologically, how to design and scale them for different goals, practical programming templates, and common mistakes that sabotage results. Real-world examples illustrate how athletes, recreational lifters, and coaches make EMOMs productive elements of training plans. Read on for a complete, implementable guide that turns a minute-by-minute framework into measurable performance wins.

How EMOMs Work: Physiology and Psychology

EMOMs operate at the intersection of interval training and repetition-based resistance work. Each minute begins with a task: perform a set number of reps or a time-based effort, then rest for the remainder of that minute. That rest window is not arbitrary; it shapes the energetic demands and the nervous system’s response.

Energy systems

• Short, heavy efforts (1–10 seconds) tap the ATP-PCr system, useful for strength and power-focused EMOMs that include singles, doubles, or triples of heavy lifts.
• Efforts in the 10–60 second range engage the glycolytic system, elevating lactate production and demanding rapid recovery between intervals—this is where many conditioning-style EMOMs sit.
• When EMOMs extend past 20–30 minutes with sustainable submaximal efforts, they increasingly recruit oxidative pathways, promoting aerobic capacity and recovery between high-intensity bouts.

Neuromuscular effects EMOMs place a premium on repeated neural recruitment. Performing quality reps under a tight time structure enforces motor pattern consistency and builds movement economy. Strength EMOMs—where athletes perform heavy singles or triples each minute—preserve high force outputs while allowing neural recovery. Conditioning EMOMs push repeated submaximal efforts, improving fatigue resistance and the ability to maintain technique when under stress.

Psychological factors The minute clock reduces decision fatigue. Participants know exactly how long they need to work and recover, which simplifies pacing and removes ambiguity. That predictability supports mental resilience: knowing a rest interval is coming encourages controlled effort and helps athletes push near limits without panicking. The regular chime also creates a rhythm that sustains focus and builds discipline over repeated sessions.

Designing an Effective EMOM: Exercises, Reps, and Time Domains

The strength of EMOMs is their adaptability. A purposeful design begins with a clear goal—strength, hypertrophy, conditioning, skill acquisition, or work capacity—and aligns exercise selection, repetition scheme, and total time to that goal.

Exercise selection Choose movements that match the objective and the participant's technical proficiency. Compound lifts such as back squats, deadlifts, presses, and kettlebell swings produce systemic demand and are well-suited for strength and conditioning EMOMs. Single-joint or highly technical exercises (e.g., heavy snatches) require conservative programming or supplemental skill-focused EMOMs at lower intensities.

Practical guidelines:

• Strength-focused EMOMs: select compound lifts performed for low reps (1–5) with relatively heavier loads, ensuring each rep is performed with intent and tight bracing.
• Conditioning EMOMs: choose movements that can be repeated safely under fatigue (kettlebell swings, burpees, rowing calories, box jumps) or pair complementary movements across minutes.
• Skill/technique EMOMs: use lighter loads and focus on flawless execution (e.g., 6–8 pause squats, handstand practice, technical snatch drills).

Repetition scheme and rest A useful rule: set reps so the work window takes roughly 20–40 seconds, leaving 20–40 seconds rest within each minute. This range balances intensity with recovery and allows sustainable pacing over multiple rounds.

Examples:

• If 10 kettlebell swings take 30 seconds, that leaves 30 seconds rest—appropriate for a conditioning EMOM.
• For strength EMOMs using singles, the work window might be 6–10 seconds followed by 50–54 seconds rest, emphasizing neural recovery.

Total duration Short EMOMs (8–15 minutes): ideal for metabolic finishers or skill work. They produce strong acute stress without overwhelming recovery systems.

Moderate EMOMs (16–30 minutes): effective for work capacity and conditioning, where pacing becomes essential to maintain output across the session.

Long EMOMs (30+ minutes): reserved for advanced athletes who have proven durability. These demand mental toughness and careful programming to avoid chronic fatigue.

Exercise sequencing Design multi-exercise EMOMs to alternate stress across muscle groups and energy systems. Alternating upper and lower body exercises, or mixing heavy lifts with lighter metabolic movements, reduces local fatigue and preserves movement quality.

Example sequences:

• Minute 1: Deadlifts (5 reps), Minute 2: Push-ups (12 reps), Minute 3: Box jumps (10 reps), repeat.
• Odd/Even EMOM: odd minutes perform strength movement (heavy single), even minutes perform mobility or skill work.

EMOM Variations and Their Uses

EMOMs are not monolithic. Coaches and athletes employ multiple variations, each targeting distinct adaptations.

Standard EMOM Perform one exercise at the start of every minute. Repeat for the predetermined duration. Best for focused conditioning or technical practice where repetition promotes consistency.

Odd/Even EMOM Alternate two different movements between odd and even minutes. This variation balances muscular demand and prevents one system from fatiguing too quickly. It works well for pairing a strength movement with a complementary conditioning drill.

Example: 20-minute Odd/Even EMOM

• Odd (minute 1, 3, 5…): Barbell front squats x 5
• Even (minute 2, 4, 6…): Row 12 calories or 20 kettlebell swings

Density EMOM Rather than fixing reps, the athlete aims to complete as many reps as possible within the minute, with the rest being the leftover time. Density EMOMs emphasize total work accumulation and are effective when the goal is volume-based conditioning or muscular endurance.

Ascending/Descending EMOMs

• Ascending: increase reps each minute, forcing incremental overload and progressive fatigue. Example: minute 1 = 2 burpees, minute 2 = 4 burpees, etc., over a short block to avoid failure.
• Descending: start with higher reps and reduce them over time, preserving intensity as fatigue accumulates. Useful for maintaining quality near the end of a longer session.

Strength EMOMs (Heavy Singles/Doubles) Use low rep schemes—frequently 1–3 reps at heavy loads—taking advantage of long rest windows for neural recovery. These EMOMs preserve technique, drive maximal force production, and are efficient alternatives to multiple heavy sets with longer rest.

Hybrid EMOMs Combine strength and conditioning within the same EMOM session. For example, perform heavy singles on odd minutes and conditioning movements on even minutes. This approach trains power under fatigue and develops the ability to recover quickly.

Programming Examples: EMOMs for Different Goals and Levels

Below are scalable EMOM templates you can apply immediately. Each program includes objective, structure, expected rest windows, and scaling options.

Beginner conditioning — 12-minute EMOM Objective: Improve baseline conditioning and movement proficiency. Structure:

• Minute 1: Kettlebell deadlift x 8 (light-moderate load; hip hinge focus) — ~25–30s work
• Minute 2: Incline push-ups x 8–12 — ~20–30s work
• Minute 3: Air squats x 12–15 — ~20–30s work Repeat the 3-minute rotation four times.

Scaling:

• Reduce reps to ensure 30–40s rest.
• Substitute a lighter weight or regress push-ups to wall or TRX rows for those with limited upper-body strength.

Intermediate metabolic conditioning — 20-minute EMOM Objective: Raise metabolic conditioning and work capacity. Structure (odd/even):

• Minute 1: 10 kettlebell swings (moderate weight) — ~25–30s work
• Minute 2: 12 box step-ups or box jumps (choose based on joint health) — ~20–30s work
• Minute 3: 10 push-ups (as needed, use knee variations) — ~20–30s
• Minute 4: Row 12 calories or 250m bike — ~30–40s Repeat five times.

Scaling:

• If heart rate spikes too high, drop swing reps to 8 or row calories to 10.
• To increase intensity, raise kettlebell weight or reduce rest by adding 2–4 reps per movement.

Advanced strength-capacity hybrid — 30-minute EMOM Objective: Combine maximal strength work with conditioning and durability. Structure:

• Minute 1: Heavy back squat x 2 (80–85% 1RM)
• Minute 2: 10 bar-facing burpees
• Minute 3: Heavy Romanian deadlift x 3 (70–75% 1RM)
• Minute 4: 12 calorie bike sprint or 15 kettlebell swings
• Minute 5: Strict press x 3 (75% 1RM)
• Minute 6: 15 walking lunges (weighted) Repeat five times.

Programming notes:

• Heavy singles/doubles provide neural stimulus; pairing them with conditioning on alternating minutes forces rapid physiological recovery and pushes metabolic adaptation.
• Only athletes who can recover within the allotted rest should perform 30-minute EMOMs of this nature.

Strength-focused EMOM (Powerlifting accessory) Objective: Build squat and deadlift density without long barbell sessions. Structure — 15 minutes:

• Minute 1: Back squat x 3 @ 70% 1RM — ~6–10s work
• Minute 2: Rest or accessory core work (plank 30s) Repeat for 15 sets.

This structure allows 50–54 seconds of recovery — ideal to accumulate quality reps without excessive spinal loading.

Sample density EMOM for hypertrophy Objective: Increase time under tension and volume for accessory muscle growth. Structure — 16 minutes:

• Every minute perform as many strict dumbbell rows as possible (RPE target 7–8). Rest is the leftover seconds.
• Track total reps across the 16 rounds and aim to increase total reps week to week.

Measuring Intensity and Tracking Progress

EMOMs are measurable by design. The two primary markers are work performed and rest available. Tracking both produces actionable data.

Rest seconds per minute Calculate how long the working set takes and subtract from 60. Rest time often correlates with intensity: shorter rests indicate higher intensity. Record average rest seconds per round as a simple indicator of capability.

Repetitions and density Count total reps per movement across the EMOM and log changes. For density EMOMs, total reps per session serve as the primary progression metric.

Heart rate and perceived exertion Use heart rate monitors to quantify cardiovascular load, particularly for longer EMOMs. Record peak and average heart rate, and correlate with Rate of Perceived Exertion (RPE). RPE helps guide adjustments—aim for RPE 7–8 on high-intensity intervals and 5–6 on technique-focus sessions.

Load progression For strength EMOMs, increase weight by small increments (2.5–5%) when all repetitions remain high-quality across the planned duration. For conditioning EMOMs, increase reps, weight, or reduce allowable rest time.

Logging example entry

• Date: 2026-06-15
• EMOM: 20 min odd/even
• Minutes 1/3/5: Kettlebell swings 12 reps, KB 24kg, avg rest 18s
• Minutes 2/4/6: Row 12 cal, avg rest 25s
• Total reps swings: 120; Avg HR: 154 bpm; RPE: 8/10
• Notes: Reduce kettle bell weight next session if form breaks before 10th rep.

Common Mistakes and How to Avoid Them

EMOMs deliver benefits when executed well. The following missteps undermine progress and increase injury risk.

Mistake: Pushing to failure every minute Why it fails: Reaching technical failure increases injury risk and reduces quality of subsequent reps or rounds. EMOMs are most effective when reps remain controlled and movement patterns intact.

Fix: Program conservative reps that allow 20–40 seconds rest. If form breaks, reduce load, reps, or change the exercise.

Mistake: Poor exercise pairing Why it fails: Stacking heavy compound lifts back-to-back without compensatory recovery taxes the same tissues repeatedly, producing local fatigue that impairs technique.

Fix: Alternate upper and lower body, or pair heavy lifts with low-impact conditioning and mobility work. For example, pair a heavy squat minute with a mobility or low-impact core minute.

Mistake: Excessive duration for the athlete’s level Why it fails: Long EMOMs require both physical durability and mental discipline. Novices who attempt 30-minute EMOMs without a conditioning base will accumulate fatigue quickly and risk overuse.

Fix: Start with 8–15 minute blocks and gradually increase as recovery and performance data indicate readiness.

Mistake: Ignoring warm-up and mobility Why it fails: Rapid, high-intensity rep schemes demand immediate readiness. Skipping a dynamic warm-up increases injury risk and reduces performance.

Fix: Implement a 10–15 minute dynamic warm-up tailored to the session’s movements. Include joint mobility, activation drills, and light practice sets.

Mistake: Measuring success only by sweat and discomfort Why it fails: High perceived exertion doesn’t guarantee progress. Volume, intensity, and movement quality matter more than momentary discomfort.

Fix: Track objective metrics—total reps, rest seconds, heart rate, and consistency of technique—then adjust programming according to these outcomes.

Scaling and Regressions: Making EMOMs Accessible

EMOMs scale cleanly for people with differing capacities. Apply regressions that maintain the session’s intent without exposing participants to undue risk.

Load and rep adjustments

• Reduce weight by 20–40% for beginners.
• Lower reps so the work window consumes no more than 30–40 seconds.
• Substitute movements: replace barbell back squats with goblet squats, heavy deadlifts with kettlebell deadlifts.

Tempo and range-of-motion modifications

• Slow down eccentric phases for hypertrophy-focused EMOMs, ensuring joint control even as reps accumulate.
• Shorten range of motion for those rehabbing injuries (partial ROM squats) with the plan to progress range over weeks.

Alternate modalities

• Swap high-impact moves (box jumps) for lower-impact options (step-ups or jump rope at low intensity).
• Use machines (leg press, seated row) to provide stability for those new to loading patterns.

Session frequency recommendations

• Beginners: 1 EMOM session per week as part of a balanced program.
• Intermediate: 1–2 sessions per week, rotating intensity and focus.
• Advanced: up to 3 sessions per week if varied in purpose (one strength, one conditioning, one skill/density), with adequate recovery.

EMOMs in Real-World Training: Case Studies and Examples

CrossFit and group fitness CrossFit popularized the EMOM format by incorporating it into scalable classes that emphasize measurable progress and community-driven work. Group EMOMs establish synchronized effort and allow coaches to monitor many athletes simultaneously. Typical implementations include pairing barbell work on odd minutes with metabolic tasks on even minutes. Coaches use EMOMs for benchmarking—athletes can return to the same EMOM weeks later and compare reps, rest, or weight.

Team sports conditioning Coaches use EMOMs to simulate game-like bursts followed by short recovery: sprint-based EMOMs, shuttle runs paired with plyometrics, or movement skill EMOMs focusing on sport-specific actions. These mimic repeated high-intensity efforts interspersed with short recovery windows typical of many field and court sports.

Rehabilitation and return-to-play Therapists implement low-intensity EMOMs to provide consistent, repeatable doses of work across a session. EMOMs make progress measurable: total time under load, rest availability, and movement quality can be tracked strictly, supporting safe progression.

High-performance environments Professional athletes employ EMOMs to preserve sport-specific strengths without extensive gym time. Strength EMOMs with heavy singles maintain neural readiness, while conditioning EMOMs refine recovery between high-power outputs.

Real athlete example (anonymized approach) A regional-level rugby player integrated a 16-minute EMOM twice weekly during preseason:

• Minute 1: Hang power clean x 2 (moderate load)
• Minute 2: 10 sled pushes (heavy)
• Minute 3: 8 Bulgarian split squats (each leg alternating across rounds)
• Minute 4: 12 medball slams

Over 8 weeks this athlete recorded increased repeat-sprint performance and improved perceived recovery during intervals in match simulations. The regimented rest and varied stimuli preserved technical quality and generated sport-relevant gains.

Practical Warm-Up and Cool-Down Protocols for EMOM Sessions

A good EMOM starts and ends with intention. The warm-up primes systems needed for the specific session; the cool-down accelerates recovery.

Warm-up (10–15 minutes)

1. General aerobic activation: 3–5 minutes easy row, bike, or jump rope to raise heart rate.
2. Joint mobility: thoracic rotations, hip circles, ankle dorsiflexion drills.
3. Movement-specific activation: glute bridges, banded pull-aparts, scapular push-ups—choose 2–4 priming drills.
4. Progressive sets: perform 1–2 light sets of the main movements at 30–50% session load, focusing on tempo and breathing.

Cool-down (8–12 minutes)

1. Active recovery: 3–5 minutes easy cycling or walking to gradually lower heart rate.
2. Static stretching: 4–6 minutes targeting hips, hamstrings, chest, and shoulders with 30–45s holds.
3. Breathing and neural downregulation: 2–3 minutes of diaphragmatic breathing to reduce sympathetic drive and support recovery.

Recovery, Frequency, and Long-Term Integration

EMOMs are a stressor like any other training modality. Managing recovery ensures consistent progress rather than regression.

Recovery considerations

• Sleep, nutrition, and hydration directly mediate adaptation to EMOM training. Heavy or long EMOMs should be scheduled around lighter days or days off.
• Monitor soreness and movement quality. If technique degrades across sessions, reduce volume or intensity.

Frequency

• For general fitness: 1 EMOM session weekly combined with two resistance sessions and one mobility/cardio session creates balanced programming.
• For sport-specific phases: EMOM frequency can rise to 2–3 sessions per week when used primarily for conditioning, but include at least 48 hours between intense EMOMs.

Periodization Integrate EMOMs into periodized plans by varying focus across mesocycles:

• Accumulation: higher volume EMOMs with moderate intensity to build endurance.
• Intensification: incorporate strength EMOMs with heavier loads and shorter repetitions.
• Realization: reduce EMOM volume and emphasize competition-specific work and recovery.

Common EMOM Templates Coaches Use

Coaches often rely on repeatable templates that can be scaled.

Template A — Strength Preservation (10–15 min)

• Every minute: perform 1–2 heavy reps of a primary lift followed by optional mobility work.
• Use for in-season athletes to maintain force production.

Template B — Metabolic Finisher (8–12 min)

• Every minute: 8–12 reps of a high-intensity movement like kettlebell swings or burpees.
• Use after primary resistance training to tax conditioning without long additional sessions.

Template C — Skill and Volume (12–20 min)

• Alternate technical movement and accessory volume (odd/even). Example: odd minutes skill snatch drills; even minutes hang power snatch x 3.

Template D — Density Bodyweight (16–24 min)

• Every minute: perform as many strict reps of a bodyweight movement as possible, tracking total reps. Use progress markers week to week.

Equipment and Space Considerations

EMOMs require minimal equipment, but equipment choices change the session’s character.

Minimalist equipment

• Kettlebell, dumbbell, or bodyweight suffice for efficient conditioning EMOMs.
• A jump rope or rower increases cardio specificity.

Barbell-based EMOMs

• Barbell EMOMs are excellent for strength and power. Ensure a safe environment and spotters where necessary.
• Use fractional load increases to progress without compromising form.

Facility considerations

• For group settings, stagger start times or use split stations to avoid congestion with heavy barbell work.
• Provide audible timers or group chimes to synchronize efforts effectively.

How to Begin: A 4-Week Starter Plan

Week 1: Introduction (2 EMOM sessions)

• Session A (12 min): 3-minute rotation x 4 of goblet squat x 10, incline push-up x 10, plank 30s.
• Session B (10 min): kettlebell deadlifts x 8, bodyweight rows x 8.

Week 2: Build (2 EMOM sessions)

• Increase session A duration to 15 min; slightly increase kettlebell weight.
• Add a mobility-focused EMOM: every minute perform 40 seconds of thoracic mobility and 20 seconds rest for 10 minutes.

Week 3: Intensity (2 EMOM sessions)

• Introduce an odd/even EMOM: odd minutes kettlebell swings x 12, even minutes moderate row 10 cal, 16 minutes total.
• Add a strength EMOM: back squat x 3 @ 65% 1RM, 10 rounds.

Week 4: Consolidate (2 EMOM sessions)

• Combine conditioning and strength: 15-minute hybrid EMOM alternating heavy single (80% 1RM) and metabolic work (10 burpees).
• Evaluate progress via rest time tracking and adjust Week 5 load accordingly.

The Research-Agnostic Rationale: Why EMOMs Produce Results

EMOMs succeed because they reliably manipulate key training variables: intensity, density, and recovery. By setting work and rest in predictable intervals, EMOMs create reproducible stimuli that lend themselves to measurement and progression.

• Density: EMOMs increase work performed per unit time. Repeated sessions with logged metrics show measurable improvements in volume or intensity.
• Pacing and recovery: predictable rest promotes aggressive but controlled efforts. When athletes know rest is coming, they can push near maximal effort safely.
• Technical consistency: short, frequent sets preserve technique compared with long sets taken to failure.
• Mental training: repetition under time constraints builds tolerance for discomfort and fosters discipline.

These elements translate into improved aerobic and anaerobic fitness, greater capacity to perform repeated high-power outputs, and enhanced movement proficiency.

FAQ

Q: How many EMOM sessions should I do per week? A: One to two sessions per week suffice for general fitness. Athletes may increase frequency (up to three) if sessions vary in intensity and are spaced to allow recovery. Beginners should start with one short EMOM and assess recovery and performance before increasing frequency.

Q: Is an EMOM better than a circuit or AMRAP? A: EMOMs, circuits, and AMRAPs serve different purposes. EMOMs enforce fixed rest windows and consistent pacing, circuits emphasize continuous movement between stations, and AMRAPs aim for maximum reps in a time frame. Choose EMOMs when you want controlled intensity and measurable rest, AMRAPs for maximal density, and circuits for variety and continuous metabolic stress.

Q: Can EMOMs build strength? A: Yes—when structured around low-rep, heavy lifts with sufficient rest (e.g., heavy singles/doubles each minute). Strength EMOMs preserve neural quality and concentrate force production. Progress occurs through careful load progression and monitoring of technique.

Q: How do I prevent EMOMs from causing overtraining? A: Monitor objective metrics (rest seconds, total reps, heart rate) and subjective measures (sleep, mood, soreness). Alternate EMOM intensity within the weekly plan and ensure adequate recovery nutrition, sleep, and mobility work. Reduce EMOM load or frequency if performance declines or recovery stalls.

Q: What are safe progressions for EMOMs? A: Increase load or reps gradually, add one or two minutes to session length at a time, or shift from single-modality EMOMs to hybrid templates. Track consistency of reps and rest; when values plateau positively, introduce incremental increases.

Q: Can EMOMs be used for rehabilitation? A: Yes. Low-intensity EMOMs with controlled loads and limited range of motion provide structured, repeatable doses of work that therapists can measure and progress. Prioritize movement quality and consult medical guidance for individual conditions.

Q: How should beginners choose rep counts for EMOMs? A: Aim for work windows of roughly 20–40 seconds. Choose a rep count that allows completion of quality repetitions within that time. If the set takes longer than 40 seconds or quality degrades, reduce reps or load.

Q: What equipment is best for EMOMs? A: Kettlebells, dumbbells, barbells, rowers, and bodyweight are all effective. The choice depends on the session’s goal. Minimalist EMOMs with kettlebells or bodyweight are accessible and highly effective for general conditioning.

Q: Are EMOMs suitable for older adults? A: Yes, when scaled appropriately. Use lower loads, longer rest windows, and joint-friendly exercises. Focus on mobility, balance, and controlled strength movements. Consult healthcare professionals for those with chronic conditions.

Q: How do I track progress with EMOMs? A: Log total reps per movement, average rest seconds per minute, heart rate responses, and RPE. Compare these metrics across sessions to identify trends and guide progression.

EMOMs distill complex training variables into a minute-by-minute framework that coaches and athletes trust for consistency, measurable progress, and varied stimulus. When designed with clear intent—matching movement selection, repetition schemes, and duration to the goal—EMOMs drive meaningful improvements in conditioning, strength, and durability while remaining accessible across ability levels. Apply the programming templates, monitor intensity, and prioritize technique; the minute chime will provide both structure and challenge as performance follows.